| Clear line of sight | Two handheld radios with unobstructed paths, antennas held upright, and little nearby interference. | Several kilometres may be possible; greater distances can occur when both radios are elevated. | Usually the most favourable condition. The radio horizon and antenna height often matter more than advertised maximum range. |
| Dense urban area | Buildings, indoor walls, vehicles, and other structures obstruct or reflect radio signals. | Often hundreds of metres to a few kilometres, depending on building layout and indoor use. | Concrete, metal, and below-ground locations can cause substantial signal loss. Reflections may also create local dead spots. |
| Open, flat terrain | Few obstacles between radios, such as on open farmland or a broad, unobstructed field. | Several kilometres may be achievable with suitable radios and a clear path. | Low obstacles, ground curvature, vegetation, and antenna height still limit practical range. |
| Hilly or mountainous terrain | Ridges, slopes, and valleys interrupt or shield the signal path. | Highly variable: a short distance may fail across a ridge, while elevated radios with a clear path may communicate over much longer distances. | Terrain profile and line of sight dominate. A repeater positioned at elevation can extend coverage where permitted. |
| VHF handheld radio | VHF systems are commonly used outdoors and may perform well over open areas with a suitable antenna. | No fixed range; performance depends on antenna, terrain, frequency allocation, and lawful operating power. | Vegetation and terrain can affect coverage. Frequency use and power limits vary by country and radio service. |
| UHF handheld radio | UHF is widely used for business and personal handheld communication, including many built-up environments. | No fixed range; building materials, indoor location, antenna design, and local rules are important factors. | Signals can penetrate some building layouts effectively, but dense construction and metal structures may sharply reduce coverage. |
| Higher antenna position | The radio antenna is held clear of the body or mounted higher, with no obstruction immediately around it. | Can improve usable distance when raising the antenna clears nearby obstacles or expands line of sight. | Antenna height and placement can provide a greater benefit than a small increase in transmit power. |
| Repeater-assisted operation | A fixed relay receives and retransmits compatible radio signals, typically from a well-positioned site. | Coverage can extend well beyond direct radio-to-radio handheld range; the footprint depends on the site and system design. | Requires compatible equipment, access to the repeater, and compliance with applicable licensing and frequency rules. |